Does the virtue of prudence determine the social, political, and intellectual life of a society? Alasdair MacIntyre is a profound philosopher and a world-famous savant who believed that oppression within a society could only be solved by returning to virtue ethics. Furthermore, he expounds on the importance of the virtue of prudence in order to do the goal of a virtuous society. On the other hand, a society that does not understand the virtue of prudence will be unjust and based on a multiplicity of individualist ideals, rather than social group responsibility. I mean by social group responsibility, the role that each human being must play within a society based on mutual respect for one another. As human beings, it is necessary to respect each other and strive towards our moral perfection while also contributing to the society’s moral perfection. I will argue that the virtue of prudence does determine the development of a society.

Prudence is the intellectual virtue which rightly directs particular human acts, through rectitude of the appetite, towards a good end. Moreover, it should be acknowledged that truth is the top-notch of the intellect. Human beings need prudence to carry out the perfection of the intellect which is truth. Furthermore, prudence is necessary in order to know how to act in the right way. Prudence also enables a human being to be able to discern the mid-point between excess and defect. For example, Glen has the virtue of prudence which enables him to perceive that bravery is the midpoint between being a coward (defect) and being rash (excess). As Aristotle claims, “To act virtuously is to act from inclination that has been cultivated by virtue”. This quote explains the notion that a virtuous person acts through knowledge and judgment. MacIntyre asserts, “Intelligence and Moral virtue are inseparable”. MacIntyre believed that a prudent individual has to posses a keen intellect in order to glimpse and not misconstrue the midpoint between excess and defect.

However, to comprehend the virtue of prudence an individual must understand the three stages to transform knowledge of reality. The first stage is deliberation, which is the good habit of deliberating well which produces the act of favorable counsel, ‘˜eubulia’ (Greek word for good counsel). For example, John is considering putting off doing his term paper until the night before it is due. He asks his three dean’s list friends for their opinions. They tell John to begin his paper as soon as possible because it will allow him to be more profound and considerate with his ideas. John adheres to his friend’s advice which is an example of estimable counsel (deliberation). The second stage is judgment, which is the act or process of judging; the formation of an opinion after consideration or deliberation. Judgment is divided into synesis and gnome. Synesis is common sense in ordinary run of affairs. For instance, Ben can acquire a judgment that four plus four equals eight. This is an example of common sense (synesis) because the equation will always produce the same result. On the other hand, gnome is being a good judge when dealing with a problem that is not wholly covered by the law. Moreover, there is a lack of certainty with prudence. Therefore, a prudent person has to have the capacity to estimate about accurate action in various, recent situations. For example, Lisa decides not to cheat on her philosophy test because it would be morally wrong to cheat. Lisa’s judgment would be considered a gnome judgment.

As Aristotle writes, “Two parts possessing reason; one by which we survey those kind of beings, the principles of which cannot subsist otherwise than they do (scientific), and the other, by which we scrutinize things of a contingent nature (ratiocinative)”. The last stage, decision (command), is the passing of judgment on an mumble under consideration. Decision is the most critical stage of the virtue of prudence because it is the action aspect of all the stages. Prudence is essentially about right action. As Aquinas writes, “I answer that, Prudence is good reason applied to action. Hence, that which is the chief act of reason in regard to action must needs be the chief act of prudence. Now there are three such acts. The first is to take counsel, which belongs to discovery, for counsel is an act of inquiry. The second act is to judge of what one has discovered and this is an act of the speculative reason. But the practical reason, which is directed to action, goes further, and its third act is to command, which act consists in applying to action the things counseled and judged. And since this act approaches nearer to the kill of the practical reason, it follows that it is the chief act of the practical reason, and consequently of prudence”. This quote reaffirms the conception that to order is the most important aspect of prudence.

St. Thomas Aquinas claimed that there are eight momentous integral parts of prudence. The first is memory, because without a good or at least a decent memory, there is no means to make up those experiences that will help individuals decide what to do in the future. As Aquinas claims, “Prudence is acquired and perfected by experience”. This quote explains the notion that an increase in experiences will enable an individual to make prudent decisions. However, in order to win an extensive amount of experiences a obliging memory is necessary. The second integral part of prudence is the opinion, because memories and experience are not very useful if we don’t understand them. Moreover, it is through logically taking apart a memory or experience that we see the steps that lead to the outcome. Individuals can then either repeat those steps or find ways to avoid them. The third integral allotment of prudence is open mindedness, because no one person can personally acquire all the experiences needed to make favorable decisions. In addition, by reading and listening to the facts and opinions of others we can gather the experiences of the world. As Aquinas claims, “He must carefully, frequently and reverently apply his mind to the teaching of the learned, neither neglecting them through laziness, nor despising them through pride”. This quote shows that to become prudent, human beings must be willing to learn. It is difficult to comprehend the magnitude of having open mindedness. Many human beings are steadfast in there false conjectures.

Moreover, if individuals stay in thrall by their false notions they will never achieve prudence, which will lead to a life of vice. The fourth integral fragment of prudence is shrewdness which is characterized by involved awareness, sharp intelligence, and often a sense of the practical. Shrewdness enables an individual to evaluate their past experiences and the experiences of others. People must ask themselves; especially with the experiences of others, if the concept in my mind is a suitable understanding of the experiences. Individuals must acknowledge that it is possible that the experiences they have may be a lie or a half truth that has been passed down from others without any critical evaluation or is based on incorrect information. As Thomas a Kempis writes, “We must not trust every word of others are feelings ourselves, rather we should try the matter and see if it is of God”.

The fifth integral part of prudence is reason, because reason and logic should be broken-down when evaluating our experiences. People must observe their memories with a critical eye to be able to completely grasp various experiences. For example, some people believe that to prevaricate for a good cause is justifiable and regard the statement as a “white lie.” However, if an individual uses his reason he will realize that prevaricating is never acceptable because it reduces the moral goodness of the agent. Prevaricating reduces the moral goodness of an agent because it causes the agent to accustom himself to vice. Moreover, to be prudent is to practice right action; therefore, if a human being practice erroneous action they will not be prudent. The sixth integral fragment of prudence is foresight, which is perception of the significance and nature of events before they have occurred. Human beings must decide what they are trying to accomplish and the goals that they are trying to reach. As Aquinas asserts, “Prudence is properly about the means to an end, and its sterling work is to set them in due order to the end”. The seventh integral part of prudence is circumspection, which is being heedful of circumstances and potential consequences. Before individuals can embark to where they want to go, they must look at where they are. Furthermore, individuals’ current circumstances will dictate how they reach their goals. The last integral fragment of prudence is caution, which is careful forethought to avoid danger or harm. All decisions and plans have the potential to go wrong. Therefore, human beings have to be cautious in their actions. It is apparent that if an individual has all eight parts of the virtue of prudence, he can advance closer to the goal of happiness. As Aquinas writes, “Happiness is secured through virtue; it is a good attained by man’s own will”. This quote explains that happiness in the temporal world is gained through being virtuous. For Aquinas claims, “There conditions are necessary for the salvation of man: to know what he ought to believe; to know what he ought to desire; and to know what he ought to do”. It is by the virtue of prudence that a man can know all the things required for his salvation.

However, there are vices that cause imprudence which can deter an individual’s goal of happiness. As Aristotle suggests, “For depravity distorts the judgment and produces deception about the practical principles. Hence it is evident that it is impossible for any one to be prudent unless he is a good man”. This quote reaffirms the notion that vices can make a man imprudent. The first vice that leads to imprudence is impetuosity, which is the name given to the vice of acting quickly because of failure to consider adequately the available means. Furthermore, impetuosity is caused by taking no counsel. For example, Billy is upset with Jack for stealing his girlfriend, so he hits him in the face rather than talking out the problem with Jack or asking a trusted friend how he should deal with Jack. Billy is then arrested for assault and locked up in jail. However, if Billy had acted prudently rather than being impetuous he could have found an intelligent and propitious way to resolve the situation. As Thomas a Kempis claims, “It is great wisdom not to be haste in action or stubborn in our own opinions”. Furthermore, Aquinas writes, “To absorb with patience wrongs done to oneself is a mark of perfection, but to hold with patience wrongs done to someone else is a tag of imperfection and even actual sin”. Human beings have to be patient in their actions so that they can produce the right decision; unless another person is in danger. The second vice that causes imprudence is inconstancy, which is the failure to complete a moral act by refusing to command an act be done. For example, Jen has logically reached the conclusion that she should do her homework, but she refuses to apply her conclusion to action. Jen would rather watch “Gossip Girl”. This would be a definite instance of inconstancy.

The third vice that cause imprudence is negligence, which is a defect of the part of the intellect to direct the will in carrying out some good action. Moreover, negligence is blindness to the concrete reality. The fourth vice that causes imprudence is false prudence, which is excess in the propensity and desire for power, wealth, and fame. As Aquinas states, “Man should not consider his material possession his own, but as common to all, so as to share them without hesitation when others are in need”. This quote shows that man should not be overly concerned with wealth because it is not only his, but a gift to all mankind from God, so he should share with others rather than try to hoard as much money as possible.

The fifth vice that causes imprudence is prudence of the flesh, which is excess fine of: body, beauty, physique, and sensual pleasure. For Aquinas claims, “Man cannot live without joy; therefore when he is deprived of true spiritual joys it is necessary that he become addicted to carnal pleasures”. This quote expounds on the idea that a man should pursue virtue or he will become a victim of vice. All human beings desire to be happy, but they must choose a happiness that is best suited to their nature. The happiness that is best suited to their nature is final, self-sufficient, and can be obtained. According to Aristotle, people can accept the ultimate happiness by trying to understand the fundamental principles that govern the universe and rep the rewards of solving these mysteries.

It is mandatory that mankind learn to control their passions by the virtue of temperance or they will be no better than the animals that are ruled by their senses rather than by reason. As Aquinas writes, “Most men seem to live according to sense rather than reason” and he also said, “Perfection of suitable virtue does not wholly take away the passions, but regulates them”. These quotes interpret that it is by using reason and attaining the fair virtues that mankind realizes their true telos (end). I mean by telos the final end for man according to his nature as a moral being. Furthermore, by moral being I mean the notion that man should do obedient and avoid dismal. As Immanuel Kant claims, “Two things awe me most, the starry sky above me and the moral law within me”. This quote reaffirms the thought that man is a correct creature. The sixth vice that causes imprudence is astuteness, which is improper means to attain a desired demolish. A prudent man must comprehend that the extinguish does not justify the means. For example, Victor wants to achieve an A on his math test, so he decides to cheat by copying the answers on John’s test. This would be an instance of astuteness. The last vice that causes imprudence is thoughtlessness, which is defect of practical judgment. The thoughtless person does not take care or pains to form careful judgment. If a man does not or perfunctorily consider his actions, he is like a dead man walking. It is by making good judgments that we note our divine nature. As Aquinas writes, “The highest manifestation of life consists in this: that a being governs its own actions. A thing which is always subject to the direction of another is somewhat of a dead thing”. This quote shows the vital importance of using good judgment and being a leader.

However, what is a true leader? A leader is an individual that never avoids the duty of making up his mind. An gleaming leader is aware that the man who insists upon seeing with perfect clearness before he decides, never decides. In order to accept life you must accept regret and move forward with unrelenting resolve to be better than you were yesterday. Furthermore, leadership is the power to see similarity in the dissimilar in order to solve problems. Moreover, leadership is the ability to not let neither the power of others, nor our own powerlessness stupefy us when strength and perseverance is needed to accomplish a task. In addition, a leader is aware that mankind is indissolubly linked with imitation; a human being only becomes human at all by imitating other human beings. Therefore, if a leader will provide an example of greatness, other human beings will follow by imitation. Also, leadership is the capability to bring chaos into order. A leader understands that there is a requirement to work while you work and play while you play, which is splendid self-discipline. Furthermore, excellent leadership is aware that large amounts of analysis kills spontaneity, which might be needed to solve a problem. However, contemplation is essential in many decision making situations. Moreover, a leader has common sense which is the measure of the possible; it is composed of experience and prevision; it is calculation applied to life. Leadership is a desire to conquer any difficulty, for it means pushing back a boundary-line and adding to one’s liberty. Furthermore, a leader is aware that it is not what he does or what he had which expresses the worth of a man, but what he is. Yet, how is prudence related to leadership? Leadership is important to prudence because if people only follow the opinions of others they can never be truly prudent.

Furthermore, what is the origin of imprudence? First is unchaste, which is to surrender to the passions of the world because it splits the decision of practical reason into two. If the passions are not ordered by temperance then a man cannot become prudent because he will not seek after apt ends. As Aquinas writes, “Temperance is simply a disposition of the mind which binds the passion”. The second origin of imprudence is covetousness, which is immoderate straining for all the possession that a man thinks is important to his position. Covetousness is imprudent for a man and for a nation because a kingdom cannot stand if there is no social justice, no matter how prosperous the kingdom might seem to be. Furthermore, it is a humble, prudent man of justice, who is filled with loving kindness for his fellow mankind that would be a correct servant of God; rather than a man only pursing the glitter and opulence of the temporal world. Moreover, when the will and the determination exist, nations and peoples of diverse backgrounds can and will work together. In addition, it is in unity to the achievement of common goals and the assurance of that equality and brotherhood which individuals desire. It is true prudence that each member of the human species provides for each other. Prudence is the brightness of a man who acts truthfully and fulfills his responsibility as a moral being.
However, if prudence can be lost through forgetfulness, then would it not be pointless to attain that virtue? According to Aquinas, prudence cannot be lost by forgetfulness because it is a habit that is formed by practice, which means it would be second nature for a man with prudence to act prudently. As Aquinas claims, “forgetfulness regards knowledge only, wherefore one can forget art and science, so as to lose them altogether, because they belong to the reason. But prudence consists not in knowledge alone, but also in an act of the appetite, because its famous act is one of command, whereby a man applies the knowledge he has, to the purpose of appetition and operation. Hence prudence is not taken away directly by forgetfulness, but rather is corrupted by the passions”. As the quote explains, prudence will not be lost by forgetfulness, so it is worth attaining that virtue. Furthermore, prudent people within a society will lead to a virtuous nation because they will always make the right decision in regards to code of conduct.

Moreover, in order to have a just society there must be prudence, because prudent people practice actions that are good for society. For example, in ancient Egypt, their resources for production were the Nile River and a fertile bank. This afforded them a surplus of food and material to perform goods. As a result, the people of the Egyptian society had evolved from their primitive form of small hunter gathering tribes. Their mode of production was human labor. The women would gather berries and harvest the crops while the men would do the hunting. This mode of production was very efficiently based on the resources that the Egyptians had to refine for production. In addition, the society was based on communal values. Therefore, there was no need for excess. Every member of the society was appointed various roles and strictly abide by it. As a result of a consistent and stable supply of the resources vital for the maintenance of the society, they were able to evolve rapidly. In regards to the social aspect of the Egyptian society, they were a very humble people that were satisfied with the amount of the total resource that was allotted to them. The culture was based on a strict adherence to the Gods. They believed the Gods allowed the sun to rise everyday providing for a consistent and stable mode of production. The society as a whole believed in the importance of community because each member in the society had to fulfill their role to keep things stable. This is a perfect instance of a prudent society.

On the other hand, in the early ages of the American society, their mode of production was based on slave labor. Furthermore, there was an inequality between the divisions of the sum total of the American society’s total resources. Also, the society was based on individualism rather than communal values. The Capitalist system of the American society believed that all men were self-interested. By self-interested I mean that mankind wanted to pursue ends that furthered their chance of survival. The assumption of Capitalism is that if each member of the society pursued his own self-interest with intense zeal, it would lead to the betterment of the society as a whole. However, it failed to consider that such a mode of production would lead to inequality and oppression. It will lead to inequality and oppression because it fails to consider that those within the society that aren’t blessed by good birth, radiant aptitude, and a ability to overcome the road blocks in the way to success will be oppressed by those who can. Good birth being the advantage of being born a free man rather than a slave or being born wealthy rather than poor. With intellectual aptitude being the ability to make a decision quickly and efficiently when faced with a rational problem. And, the ability to overcome the road blocks in the way to success being the conception that perseverance will be needed in order to succeed at any endeavor. However, why do good birth, intellectual aptitude, and perseverance lead to success rather than oppression? It is because a good birth allows a person to have the resources and freedom to succeed, intellectual aptitude allows a person the ability to compete with others trying to succeed in a fast paced world, and perseverance allows a person to continue to strive towards a goal even after the first attempt has failed. These are all important factors when competing in an individualist society that values competition. This would be an example of an imprudent society.

After examining both the Egyptian and the American society we have arrived at a sure understanding of how prudence can affect a society. Furthermore, we discover by contemplating the virtue of prudence that a virtuous person is in a state of perfect harmony. By examining the integral parts of prudence and the vices that lead to imprudence we learn how to be prudent and how we can become imprudent. Therefore, prudence does determine the development of a society.

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